Vertebrate-dispersed plants are generally not limited reproductively by the lack of dispersers. Our review supports the view that tightly coevolved, plant-vertebrate seed dispersal systems are extremely rare. Seeds of many of the most notorious plant invaders are dispersed by animals, mainly birds and mammals. Most alien plants are well served by generalist pollinators (insects and birds), and pollinator limitation does not appear to be a major barrier for the spread of introduced plants (special conditions relating to Ficus and orchids are described). The spread of many alien plants, particularly woody ones, depends on pollinator mutualisms. Mutualisms involving animal-mediated pollination and seed dispersal, and symbioses between plant roots and microbiota often facilitate invasions. Many introduced plant species rely on mutualisms in their new habitats to overcome barriers to establishment and to become naturalized and, in some cases, invasive.
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